If you have been reading about PPAR delta and want a single page that covers the useful parts, this is it: definitions, context, how it is studied, and the questions that come up repeatedly.
Last reviewed on 2026-06-20. Where a claim depends on a specific study, the study is described rather than over-claimed.
Clinical development stopped after rodent studies showed tumors at multiple sites. Whether those findings predict human cancer risk remains an open question, but they led sponsors to discontinue programs. Human safety data are limited to small, short-term studies that were not designed to assess cancer risk. Reported effects in those studies included changes in blood lipids, but the evidence is insufficient for medical use. Long-term consequences of nonmedical use are not well characterized. Questions about dose, duration, and individual susceptibility remain unresolved.
Cardarine is a common name for GW501516, an investigational compound developed in the 1990s for metabolic conditions. It acts as an agonist at peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor delta, a nuclear receptor involved in lipid and energy metabolism. The compound is frequently mislabeled as a selective androgen receptor modulator, or SARM, but its molecular target is different. GW501516 reached early clinical testing before development was discontinued. It has no approved therapeutic use in any country. The name cardarine is not a formal international nonproprietary name.
Regulatory treatment varies, but cardarine is not approved as a medicine. Sports authorities list GW501516 as a prohibited substance, and it is banned at all times under the World Anti-Doping Agency code. Many countries restrict sales for human consumption, while online vendors market it as a research chemical. Such products may lack purity data, and their actual contents can differ from the label. Purchasing or possessing cardarine may carry legal consequences depending on jurisdiction. The compound is not a dietary supplement ingredient in regulated markets.
Handling and quality assessment of cardarine reference material follow general laboratory practices for poorly characterized compounds. It typically appears as a white to off-white powder and is sparingly soluble in water but soluble in organic solvents such as dimethyl sulfoxide and ethanol. Storage recommendations usually specify a cool, dry, dark place, with long-term storage at low temperature and desiccation. Purity may be checked by high-performance liquid chromatography with ultraviolet detection, while identity is confirmed by mass spectrometry and nuclear magnetic resonance. No pharmacopeial monograph exists, so reported purity and stability depend on the supplier’s methods.
GW501516 acts as a selective agonist at PPARδ, a nuclear receptor that regulates transcription of genes involved in lipid handling and energy metabolism. Activation of PPARδ in preclinical models increases fatty acid oxidation, mitochondrial biogenesis, and exercise endurance in rodents. These effects have made the compound a subject of metabolic research and also a target for sport anti-doping rules. In humans, however, controlled studies are limited, and whether similar endurance or metabolic changes occur at tolerated exposures remains an open question. The receptor’s broad tissue distribution also means downstream effects may vary by organ and condition.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Common synonyms | GW501516; GW-1516; endurobol | GW501516 is the research code |
| Drug class | PPARδ agonist | Not a selective androgen receptor modulator |
| Molecular formula | C21H18F3NO3S2 | Established chemical formula |
| Molar mass | 453.5 g/mol | Calculated from the formula |
| Regulatory status | Prohibited in sport; not approved as medicine | Status varies by country |
In the fitness and bodybuilding literature, cardarine is frequently discussed as an endurance agent or fat-loss compound, although such claims are not supported by robust clinical evidence. Online descriptions often mix animal data, user anecdotes, and marketing language. Researchers who study PPARδ agonists distinguish between receptor activation in controlled experiments and unsupervised use of unverified products. The latter introduces unknown purity, dose, and interactions, making reported experiences difficult to interpret scientifically.
GW501516 acts as an agonist at peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor delta, a nuclear receptor involved in transcription of genes related to lipid handling and energy use. Activation of PPARδ can shift skeletal muscle toward greater fatty acid oxidation in animal models, which is one reason it drew interest for metabolic disease and exercise research. The exact downstream effects depend on tissue, species, dose, and duration. Human data are sparse, so many proposed benefits remain hypotheses rather than established clinical outcomes.
Laboratory studies have examined GW501516 in cell cultures and rodents for conditions such as dyslipidemia, insulin resistance, and obesity. Some trials in humans were initiated, but development was discontinued after preclinical findings raised concerns about cancer in certain models. Those findings do not prove that the compound causes cancer in people, but they contributed to regulatory caution. Later reviews often describe the evidence as preliminary and insufficient for assessing long-term safety.
Cardarine is frequently described as a fat-burning or endurance-enhancing supplement, but these claims exceed the available evidence. The compound is not a hormone, steroid, or selective androgen receptor modulator. Research articles discuss it as a tool compound for studying PPARδ biology, while anti-doping literature focuses on its abuse and detection. Quality of unapproved products is uncertain, and independent analyses have found impurities or incorrect labeling. Open questions include whether human cancer risk resembles that seen in rodents and how often non-athletes use the substance.
Cardarine has no approved therapeutic indication and is not marketed as a medicine. The World Anti-Doping Agency lists GW501516 as a prohibited substance at all times, covering both in-competition and out-of-competition periods. National laws vary: some countries treat it as an unapproved drug subject to import controls, while others have specific restrictions on sale for human consumption. It is often sold as a research chemical, a label that does not imply safety or legality. Enforcement actions have targeted online vendors and shipments.
Anti-doping laboratories identify GW501516 and related metabolites using liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry. Urine is the most common matrix, though blood and dried blood spots may also be analyzed. The method targets the parent compound and phase I and phase II metabolites, which extend the detection window. Because the substance is prohibited at all times, athletes can be tested outside competition. Detection limits and windows depend on the assay, sample type, and individual metabolism.
From the late 17th century, the Mughal Empire gradually began to disintegrate, and these local elites and communities frequently gained greater autonomy and self-governance. By the early 18th century, the lines between commercial enterprise and political sovereignty had become increasingly blurred. European chartered companies solidified their presence in India through fortified coastal outposts; most notable was the English East India Company. Its control of the seas, greater resources, and more advanced military training and technology led it to assert its military strength increasingly and caused it to become attractive to a portion of the Indian elite; these factors were crucial in allowing the company to gain control over the Bengal region by 1765 and sideline the other European companies. Its further access to the riches of Bengal and the subsequent increased strength and size of its army enabled it to annexe or subdue most of India by the 1820s. India no longer exported manufactured goods as it long had, but instead supplied the British Empire with raw materials. Many historians consider this to be the onset of India's colonial period. By this time, with its economic power severely curtailed by the British Parliament and having effectively been made an arm of British administration, the East India Company began more consciously to enter non-economic arenas, including education, social reform, and culture.
The total number of people with MS was 3.1 million globally in 2024, with a diagnosed prevalence of 38 per 100,000 people. Moreover, diagnosed prevalence varies widely in different regions around the world. In Africa, there are 4 people per 100,000 diagnosed with MS, compared to South East Asia where the prevalence is 8 per 100,000, 109 per 100,000 in the Americas, and 158 per 100,000 in Europe. The higher number of cases in countries further from the equator can partially be explained by lower UV radiation and vitamin D production. However, the true difference between countries might be smaller, as richer countries have better resources for MS diagnosis. The prevalence of MS is slowly increasing, which might be explained by countries getting better at diagnosis the disease. In addition, improvements in treatment mean that people with MS live longer. MS usually appears in adults in their twenties or thirties but it can also start in childhood and in individuals older than 40. Primary progressive MS typically starts after the age of 40. Similarly to many autoimmune disorders, the disease is more common in women, and the gender gap may have grown over time. Globally it is about two to three times more common in women than in men. In children under 12, it is only slightly more common in girls than boys, while in people with primary progressive MS, who are typically older, men and women are roughly equally affected.
=== Greek philosophy === Aristotle's The Parts of Animals sets out enough details of his views on metabolism for an open flow model to be made. He believed that at each stage of the process, materials from food were transformed, with heat being released as the classical element of fire, and residual materials being excreted as urine, bile, or faeces. Ibn al-Nafis described metabolism in his 1260 AD work titled Al-Risalah al-Kamiliyyah fil Siera al-Nabawiyyah (The Treatise of Kamil on the Prophet's Biography) which included the following phrase "Both the body and its parts are in a continuous state of dissolution and nourishment, so they are inevitably undergoing permanent change."
Angiofibroma of soft tissue is also named angiofibroma, not otherwise specified, by the World Health Organization, 2020. The Organization also classified these lesions as in the category of benign fibroblastic and myofibroblastic tumors. These tumors more often afflict females, typically occur in adults (median age 49 years), have a median size of ~3.5 cm, and develop in a leg near to, and may invade, a large joint. Less uncommonly, they occur in the back, abdominal wall, pelvic cavity, or breast. Angiofibroma of soft tissue tumors consist of uniform, bland, spindle-shaped cells and a prominent vascular network consisting of small thin-walled branching blood vessels in a variably collagenous tissue background. Its tumor cells contain an AHRR-NCOA2 fusion gene in 60% to 80% of cases and a GTF2I-NCOA2 or GAB1-ABL1 fusion gene in rare cases.
=== Overdose === Most patients overdosing with venlafaxine develop only mild symptoms. Plasma venlafaxine concentrations in overdose survivors have ranged from 6 to 24 mg/L, while postmortem blood levels in fatalities are often in the 10–90 mg/L range. Published retrospective studies report that venlafaxine overdosage may be associated with an increased risk of fatal outcome compared to that observed with SSRI antidepressant products, but lower than that for tricyclic antidepressants. Healthcare professionals are advised to prescribe Effexor and Effexor XR in the smallest quantity of capsules consistent with good patient management to reduce the risk of overdose. It is usually reserved as a second-line treatment for depression due to a combination of its superior efficacy to the first-line treatments like fluoxetine, paroxetine and citalopram and greater frequency of side effects like nausea, headache, insomnia, drowsiness, dry mouth, constipation, sexual dysfunction, sweating and nervousness. There is no specific antidote for venlafaxine, and management is generally supportive, providing treatment for the immediate symptoms. Administration of activated charcoal can prevent absorption of the drug. Monitoring of cardiac rhythm and vital signs is indicated. Seizures are managed with benzodiazepines or other anticonvulsants. Forced diuresis, hemodialysis, exchange transfusion, or hemoperfusion are unlikely to be of benefit in hastening the removal of venlafaxine, due to the drug's high volume of distribution.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
In 2005, 51 million Brazilian nationals made ten times more trips than foreign tourists and spent five times more money than their international counterparts. The main destination states in 2023 were São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, and Rio Grande do Sul. The main source of tourists for the entire country is São Paulo state. In terms of tourism revenues, the top earners by state were São Paulo and Bahia. For 2005, the three main trip purposes were visiting friends and family (53.1%), sun and beach (40.8%), and cultural tourism (12.5%).
which introduced the world's first umami seasoning: monosodium glutamate (MSG), marketed in Japan under the name "Ajinomoto." MSG subsequently spread worldwide as a seasoning capable of enhancing umami in a wide variety of dishes. In 2000, researchers at the University of Miami identified the presence of umami receptors on the tongue, and in 2006, Ajinomoto's research laboratories found similar receptors in the stomach.
Panda Express is an American fast-food restaurant chain that specializes in American Chinese cuisine. With over 2,400 locations, it is the largest Asian-segment restaurant chain in the United States, and is mainly located in North America and Asia. Panda Express restaurants were initially limited to shopping mall food courts, and have since extended into other environments and formats, including stand-alone restaurants, as well as universities, casinos, airports, military bases, amusement parks and other venues. The chain offers a variety of American-Chinese dishes, including orange chicken, sweet fire chicken breast, Beijing beef, grilled teriyaki chicken, and Kung Pao chicken, with certain premium dishes such as honey walnut shrimp and black pepper Angus steak having additional costs for the patron. The company is headquartered in Rosemead, California. The Panda Express brand is a casual, fast-food variation of corporate sibling Panda Inn, which is a chain of upscale, table-service restaurants.
His research article on a systems approach to prion diseases in 2009 was one of the first to thoroughly explore the use of systems biology to interrogate the dynamic network changes in disease models. These studies are the first to explain the dynamics of diseased-perturbed networks and have expanded to include frontal temporal dementia and Huntington's disease. Hood is also studying glioblastoma in mice and humans from the systems viewpoint. Hood advocates several practices in the burgeoning field of systems medicine, including: (1) The use of family genome sequencing, integrating genetics and genomics, to identify genetic variants associated with health and disease (2) The use of targeted proteomics and biomarkers as a window into health and disease. He has pioneered the discovery of biomarker panels for lung cancer and posttraumatic stress syndrome. (3) The use of systems biology to stratify disease into its different subtypes allowing for more effective treatment. (4) The use of systems strategies to identify new types of drug targets to facilitate and accelerate the drug discovery process.
Nitriles are isomeric with isonitriles (isocyanides). These also contain a C≡N triple bond; however, the substituent is bonded via the nitrogen atom, which results in a zwitterionic structure. Compounds in which an oxygen atom is bonded to the carbon atom of a C≡N group are referred to as cyanates. If the oxygen atom is replaced by a sulfur or selenium atom, the compounds are termed thiocyanates or selenocyanates. If the cyano group is bonded to a nitrogen atom, the compound is referred to as a cyanamide. In addition to nitriles, other classes of compounds are known that contain a C≡N triple bond in which the nitrogen atom forms a fourth bond and is therefore positively charged. In nitrile oxides, an oxygen atom is additionally bonded to the nitrogen atom. If this atom is sulfur or another nitrogen atom instead, the compounds are referred to as nitrile sulfides or nitrilimines, respectively. If the nitrogen atom of the nitrile is protonated or carries an additional organic substituent, the compound is a nitrilium ion. If the nitrogen atom carries an organic substituent bearing a negatively charged carbon atom, the species is a nitrile ylide, a subclass of ylides.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
STEP 2: The 2-methylpropanol-TPP is oxidized to form an acyl group while being simultaneously transferred to the lipoyl cofactor on E2. Note that TPP is regenerated. The proper arrow-pushing mechanism is shown in Figure 4.
In the arts, the Conservatory of Departmental Radiance Arthur Honegger is attended by 1,680 students (music, dance and drama). The Graduate School of Art of Le Havre (ESAH) offers several degrees and preparation for competition. Finally 800 people study in paramedical and social schools mostly in the IFSI (Institute of Training in Nursing) which has approximately 600 students.
Finally, a recent systematic review of 850 research papers on the topic concluded that "the majority of well-conducted studies found that higher levels of religious involvement are positively associated with indicators of psychological well-being (life satisfaction, happiness, positive affect, and higher morale) and with less depression, suicidal thoughts and behaviour, drug/alcohol use/abuse." However, there remains strong disagreement among scholars about whether the effects of religious observance, particularly attending church or otherwise belonging to religious groups, is due to the spiritual or the social aspects—i.e. those who attend church or belong to similar religious organizations may well be receiving only the effects of the social connections involved. While these benefits are real enough, they may thus be the same one would gain by joining other, secular groups, clubs, or similar organizations. Religiousness has often been found to correlate with positive health attributes. People who are more religious show better emotional well-being and lower rates of delinquency, alcoholism, drug abuse, and other social problems. Six separate factors are cited as evidence for religion's effect on well-being: religion (1) provides social support, (2) supports healthy lifestyles, (3) promotes personality integration, (4) promotes generativity and altruism, (5) provides unique coping strategies, and (6) provides a sense of meaning and purpose.
=== Interchangeability of centipede species in clinical practices === Comparative studies on S. mutilans and S. mojiangica, a common substitute for the former, has found that in pharmacodynamics and toxicology, the two centipede species have similar effects, and is theoretically proved that S. mutilans can be replaced by S. mojiangica. The same study found that two species showed similar results in various fields, including effects on animal haemoglobin and weight, chromosomal aberration tests, anticonvulsive tests, effects on in vitro fungal and bacterial growth, and acute toxicity tests. The study also suggested both centipede species can be used in relatively large doses, as they were both low in acute and genetic toxicities. Although the two centipede species were shown to be interchangeable in clinical practices, their interchangeability in clinical application was again questioned by some researchers, as more recent studies suggested that centipede proteins have a major role in their clinical effects. Through proteomics, researchers had found that the venoms of S. monjiangica and S. mutilans are different in the number of overlapping sequences and precursors for proteins and peptides. In addition, unique precursors were also found in both species for proteins and peptide levels. As the species differ in protein and peptide level, researchers of this study concluded that the interchangeability of centipede species requires further evaluation.
===== β-Ketoglutaric acid and TET-2 ===== β-Ketoglutaric acid has been detected in the saliva of individuals chewing betel quid, a complex mixture derived from betel nuts mixed with various other materials. Chronic chewing betel quid is associated with the development of certain cancers, particularly those in the oral cavity. The study showed that β-ketoglutaric acid bound to the cancer-promoting protein TET-2 thereby inhibiting α-ketoglutarate's binding to this protein. Since α-ketoglutarate's binding of TET-2 is thought to be required for it to activate TET-2, the study suggested that β-ketoglutaric acid may not fulfill the requirements for TET-2 to be activatable and therefore may prove able to block α-ketoglutarate's cancer-promoting as well as inflammation-promoting and other actions that involve its activation of TET-2.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
No. Cardarine is GW501516, a PPARδ agonist, while SARMs act on androgen receptors. The two classes are often grouped in informal discussions despite different mechanisms.
No. It has no approved medical indication in any country. Regulatory agencies have not cleared it for treatment or prevention of any condition.
Early clinical work stopped after rodent carcinogenicity findings. Those animal results raised concerns about long-term human risk, although direct human evidence is lacking. The human relevance of the tumors remains an open scientific question.
Cardarine targets PPARδ, a nuclear receptor involved in lipid and energy metabolism. It does not bind the androgen receptor in the way SARMs do.