Everything below concerns Anti-doping. We keep the language plain, cite what the science says, and separate well-supported claims from open questions.
Updated 2026-04-06. Numbers and descriptions here follow the published literature rather than marketing material.
Activation of PPARδ changes transcription of genes involved in fatty acid transport, mitochondrial function, and skeletal muscle fuel preference. In rodent studies, pharmacological PPARδ activation was associated with increased endurance and altered body composition. These findings generated interest in performance enhancement, but species differences and study designs limit direct extrapolation to humans. Small human trials were conducted in the 2000s and later discontinued. The extent to which cardarine produces similar metabolic or performance effects in people remains an open question.
The compound is typically described as a laboratory compound rather than a therapeutic product. Published reports have explored its role in lipid disorders, insulin sensitivity, and exercise metabolism, yet no major drug regulator has approved it for medical use. Commercial samples sold under the cardarine name may vary in purity and identity. Analytical confirmation is therefore necessary when the material is discussed in scientific or regulatory contexts. Its classification as a prohibited substance in sport further shapes how it is studied and reported.
Cardarine is a common name for GW501516, a synthetic compound studied for its effects on lipid and glucose metabolism. It functions as an agonist at peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor delta, or PPARδ, a nuclear receptor that influences gene expression. The molecule is not a steroid, nor is it a selective androgen receptor modulator. It is also known in research and sports literature as GW-501516 and endurobol. Early laboratory work examined its metabolic activity in cell cultures and animal models.
Published studies have examined GW501516 in animal models of obesity, insulin resistance, and exercise endurance. Early human trials reportedly ended, and development was discontinued after preclinical findings raised concerns about cancer in some rodent studies. Regulatory agencies have not approved cardarine for any medical use. Its availability through non-pharmaceutical channels raises questions about identity, purity, and legal status that are separate from its laboratory pharmacology. Those questions are often addressed through analytical testing rather than assumptions about product labels.
Cardarine is a common name for GW501516, also GW-1516, a synthetic compound developed as a peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor delta (PPARδ) agonist. It belongs to a class of agents that modulate gene transcription related to lipid and energy metabolism. The compound was studied in preclinical and early clinical research for metabolic and cardiovascular conditions, but it did not progress to approved therapeutic use. Its name appears in fitness and sports contexts despite not being approved as a drug.
PPARδ is a nuclear receptor that influences transcription of genes involved in fatty acid oxidation, lipid transport, and energy homeostasis. GW501516 binds and activates this receptor with high selectivity relative to PPARα and PPARγ in laboratory assays. Activation alters expression of target genes in skeletal muscle, liver, and adipose tissue in animal models. The exact clinical consequences of these changes in humans remain incompletely characterized, and observed effects in animals do not establish therapeutic benefit or safety.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Chemical class | Synthetic PPARδ agonist | Not a steroid or a selective androgen receptor modulator. |
| Common synonyms | Cardarine, GW501516, GW-501516, endurobol | Names vary by supplier and literature source. |
| Appearance | White to off-white powder | Consistent with many small-molecule research chemicals. |
| Solubility | Low in water; soluble in DMSO and ethanol | Often prepared in organic solvent for laboratory work. |
| Primary target | PPARδ (NR1C2) | Nuclear receptor involved in lipid and energy metabolism. |
Human trials of GW501516 were small and short in duration. They examined lipid levels, glucose handling, and other metabolic markers, but the programs were halted after the animal cancer findings. No approved therapeutic product exists, and published human data are insufficient for establishing long-term safety. Reports of use for athletic performance come mainly from non-clinical settings and cannot be verified through controlled trials. Independent testing of products sold as cardarine has found inconsistent purity and labeling.
Laboratory studies indicate that GW501516 activates PPARδ, a nuclear receptor involved in fatty acid oxidation and energy metabolism. In rodent experiments, treated animals often showed increased endurance and reduced fat mass. These effects were observed under controlled conditions and do not establish safe or effective use in humans. The exact dose-response relationship in humans remains poorly characterized. Species differences in metabolism can affect how results translate across animals and people.
Preclinical research reported that GW501516 increased running endurance in mice and improved lipid profiles in some animal species. Early human trials explored effects on high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, triglycerides, and glucose handling, but the program was discontinued. Published human data are sparse and do not establish efficacy for any condition. Studies also examined PPAR delta in cancer biology, with conflicting findings across models. The relationship between receptor activation, tissue context, and disease risk remains an active area of investigation.
Anti-doping laboratories identify GW501516 and its metabolites using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Urine is the usual matrix, and detection can occur after the parent compound has cleared from blood. The exact detection window depends on dose, formulation, individual metabolism, and assay sensitivity. Because the compound is prohibited at all times, athletes are subject to testing in and out of competition. Analytical methods continue to improve as new metabolites and designer analogs are characterized.
GW501516 acts as a ligand for PPAR delta, a nuclear receptor that regulates transcription of genes involved in fatty acid oxidation and energy use. Activation of this receptor in skeletal muscle shifts metabolism toward fat burning in animal models. The compound does not burn fat directly; it changes gene expression over hours to days. Researchers study it to understand metabolic flexibility and exercise adaptation. Effects observed in rodents are not automatically expected in humans.
A common misconception is that cardarine has been proven safe for human use. In reality, human clinical data are limited, and long-term animal studies have raised concerns about cancer. Another misconception is that it is a supplement or vitamin-like compound. It is a synthetic research chemical with no approved medical indication. Scientific discussion often focuses on its mechanism and detection rather than therapeutic use. Regulatory and anti-doping literature treats it primarily as a prohibited substance.
Cardarine is explicitly prohibited by the World Anti-Doping Agency under the class of PPARδ agonists. Its presence in urine or blood samples can be detected using mass spectrometry-based methods, often liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Athletes who test positive may face sanctions, including bans from competition. The compound is also regulated as a prescription-only or unapproved drug in many countries. Enforcement varies by jurisdiction, and some regions treat it as a controlled substance. Online sales may occur despite these restrictions, creating quality and legal risks.
Four drugs from the class of direct Xa inhibitors are marketed worldwide. Rivaroxaban (Xarelto) was the first approved FXa inhibitor to become commercially available in Europe and Canada in 2008. The second one was apixaban (Eliquis), approved in Europe in 2011 and in the United States in 2012. The third one edoxaban (Lixiana, Savaysa) was approved in Japan in 2011 and in Europe and the US in 2015. Betrixaban (Bevyxxa) was approved in the US in 2017.
Tender pig or boar meat. What is enjoyed by pigs and boars. In the latter meaning, the term has been thought to refer to a mushroom or truffle, or a yam or tuber. The idea that the Buddha's last meal consisted of pork is generally supported by the Theravada tradition; while that it was a vegetarian dish, by the Mahayana tradition. These may reflect the different traditional views on Buddhist vegetarianism and the monastic precepts. In the sutta, the Buddha asks Cunda to serve the rice and cakes to the community of bhikkus, and to only serve the sūkaramaddava to him. Any leftovers should be buried in a pit. Cunda does as he is told. Theravada scholar Buddhaghosa, the author of the earliest extant commentary that refers to the meal, interprets the term sūkara-maddava as the soft and oily flesh of a boar, adding that it was well-cooked under Chunda's instructions. According to later commentator Dhammapāla, this interpretation comes from the older commentary Mahā-atthakathā; Dhammapāla suggests that sūkara-maddava was either a bamboo shoot softened by boars or "mushroom grown in a place softened by boars". Old Chinese texts support Dhammapāla's suggestion, and Pali scholar Thomas William Rhys Davids translates the word as "truffle". Food historian K. T. Achaya notes that the Indian names of multiple plants begin with the word "sūkara" (Sanskrit shukara), so the word likely sūkara-maddava does not refer to pork: other Buddhist texts do not associate the word maddava with meat, and use the term sūkara-māmsa for pork.
As of 2019, Illinois had $8.5 billion of unpaid bills and $134 billion of pension liabilities. The gas tax that funds the 2019 infrastructure plan, 38 cents per gallon and indexed to inflation, took effect on July 1, 2019. As of 2019, Illinois had one of the highest fuel taxes in the U.S. In 2024, Pritzker signed legislation eliminating the state's 1% tax on groceries, beginning January 1, 2026. In 2024, Pritzker signed a budget into law that included the creation of the state's first child tax credit, which provided up to $300 to households with children under 12 years old that made less than $60,000 annually. In 2025, the tax credit doubled to up to $600 per child.
=== Androgen deficiency === Primary hypogonadism (indicating an intrinsic problem with the testes in males) leads to decreased testosterone synthesis and increased conversion of testosterone to estradiol, potentially leading to a gynecomastic appearance. Klinefelter syndrome is a notable example of a disorder that causes hypogonadism and gynecomastia, and has a higher risk of breast cancer in males (20–50 times higher than males without the disorder). Secondary hypogonadism (indicating a problem with the brain) leads to decreased production and release of luteinizing hormone (LH, a stimulatory signal for endogenous steroid hormone synthesis) which leads to decreased production of testosterone and estradiol in the testes.
It tends not to share the common blue tint with a vein however. It can be felt as a hardened lump or "vein" even when the penis is flaccid, and is even more prominent during an erection. It is considered a benign physical condition. It is fairly common and can follow a particularly vigorous sexual activity for men, and tends to go away if given rest and more gentle care, for example by use of lubricants. Carcinoma of the penis is rare with a reported rate of 1 person in 100,000 in developed countries. Some sources state that circumcision can protect against this disease, but this notion remains controversial among medical circles. Hard flaccid syndrome is a rare, chronic condition characterized by a flaccid penis that remains in a firm, semi-rigid state in the absence of sexual arousal. Cold glans syndrome is a condition marked by the persistent inability of the glans penis to maintain an erect state during sexual arousal, potentially leading to reduced sensitivity and erection difficulties.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
== Education == High received an A.B. in chemistry at Harvard University in 1972. She started her medical training at the University of North Carolina (UNC) School of Medicine, during which she took a leave of absence to work in a chemistry research lab at UNC. After returning and completing her medical degree in 1978, High continued with a residency in internal medicine. She then became a hematology fellow at Yale University under the supervision of Edward J Benz Jr, during which she worked on the molecular genetics of globin genes and oncogenes.
Many of the Germans who stayed in Czechoslovakia later emigrated to West Germany (more than 100,000). As the German population was transferred out of the country, the former Sudetenland was resettled mostly by Czechs but also by other nationalities of Czechoslovakia: Slovaks, Greeks (arriving in the wake of the Greek Civil War 1946–49), Carpathian Ruthenians, Romani people and Jews who had survived the Holocaust, and Hungarians (though the Hungarians were forced to do so and later returned home—see Hungarians in Slovakia: Population exchanges). Some areas, such as part of Czech Silesian-Moravian borderland, southwestern Bohemia (Šumava National Park), western and northern parts of Bohemia, remained depopulated for several strategic reasons (extensive mining and military interests) or are now protected national parks and landscapes. Moreover, before the establishment of the Iron Curtain in 1952 to 1955, the so-called "forbidden zone" was established by means of engineer equipment up to 2 km (1.2 mi) from the border in which no civilians could reside. A wider region, or "border zone", existed up to 12 km (7 miles) from the border in which no "disloyal" or "suspect" civilians could reside or work. Thus, the entire Aš-Bulge fell within the border zone, a status that remained until the Velvet Revolution in 1989.
In the Georgian period, many excellent examples of the period's houses were built in Billericay. One of those remaining today is Burghstead Lodge in High Street, which used to house the library. The Town Hall was built in 1830 at 94 High Street. The Billericay Poor Law Union was created in 1835 to serve the town and several surrounding parishes. It built a workhouse in 1840 on Norsey Road. Parts of this building were later incorporated into St Andrew's Hospital. The population of the town in the 1841 census was 1,824. The railway arrived in Billericay in 1889; the station is situated on a branch line from the Great Eastern Main Line between Shenfield and Southend-on-Sea. In 1899, Billericay's market, the reason for the town's establishment is recorded for the last time, though there were short-lived revivals.
By 2011, CRE was reported in at least 22 countries. Between 2009 and 2012, 10 cases of CRE infections were documented in ICU patients in a Melbourne, Australia, hospital. Some cases of CRE are associated with receipt of medical care in the US. Strains found in Israel had genetic similarity to strains from the US. Hospital handwashing stations were found to be environmental reservoirs for CRE after screening all wet-area locations, including sinks, water fountains, and ice machines. The main reservoirs for CRE were the ICU sinks, and inappropriate cleaning methods accounted for transmission from sink to sink. The CRE strains in the sinks and the strains infecting the ICU patients were identical per genetic analysis. At-risk patients were being infected in the hospital setting. A study, conducted in 2016–2017 at a pediatric hospital in Kathmandu, Nepal, detected the presence of the blaNDM-1 gene among carbapenem-resistant Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae isolates confirmed by the Modified Hodge Test, analyzing 1503 clinical samples collected over six months. Genetic analysis revealed that half of the E. coli and two-thirds of the K. pneumoniae carbapenemase-producing isolates carried the blaNDM-1 gene, highlighting the prevalence of this resistance mechanism in Nepal
France's defeat led to the rise of Britain as the world's foremost naval and economic power, a status it would hold for the remainder of the century. After the end of the Napoleonic Wars, the Congress of Vienna redrew Europe's borders and brought a relative peace to the continent, with no major great power conflicts until the Crimean War in 1853.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Lysyl oxidase has also proven crucial to the development of the respiratory system and the skin, as collagen and elastin represent 50-60% of the composition of the lung, and 75% of the skin. In Lox homozygous null models (Lox -/-), the activity of LOX was reduced by up to 80%, and the phenotype of the lungs resembles those of patients with emphysema and dilated distal airways. Lysyl oxidase plays a crucial role in the commitment step of adipocyte, or fat cell, formation from pluripotent stem cells during development. Its absence may lead to defects in the transforming growth factor beta superfamily of proteins, which control cell growth and differentiation.
== Signs and symptoms == The expected symptoms of Bornholm disease include fever, pleuritic chest pain, or epigastric abdominal pain that is frequently spasmodic. Bornholm associated chest pain is distinguished by attacks of severe pain in the lower chest, often on the right side. In a prior study, the episodes were shown to last five to ten minutes and then subside for thirty minutes. The pain is exacerbated by movement and makes walking and breathing more difficult. Patients have found relief from the pain by lying still for a brief period of time. The slightest movement of the rib cage causes a sharp increase in pain, which makes it difficult to breathe, although it generally passes off before any actual harm occurs. The attacks are unpredictable and strike "out of the blue" with a feeling like an iron grip around the rib cage. The colloquial names for the disease, such as the devil's grip, (see "other names" below) reflect this symptom. Bornholm disease is a clinical diagnosis that uses the spasmodic pain, fever, and relapses to distinguish the illness from other potential causes of pain such as appendicitis or myocardial infarction. Tachycardia and arrhythmias have been found with Bornholm disease by using an electrocardiogram (ECG). Murmurs, rubs, and pericardial effusions have been detected on physical examination. Maculopapular rashes can also be present with Bornholm disease
Sea lilies and feather stars: ligaments connecting ossicles of arms, stalks and cirri. Starfish: body-wall dermis; walls of tube feet. Brittle stars: intervertebral ligaments; autotomy tendons of arm muscles. Sea urchins: ligaments or catch apparatus, connecting spines to tests of sea urchins; tooth ligaments; compass depressor "muscles", which are in fact mostly made of connective tissues. Sea cucumbers: body-wall dermis. Early echinoderms were sessile organisms that fed on suspended particles carried by water currents. Their body was covered with imbricate small skeletal plates. The arrangement of plates suggests that plates worked as sliding joints so as animals to be able to change their body shape: they could possibly take an extended feeding posture and a flat "hiding" posture. The body plates might be connected with catch connective tissue that allowed early echinoderms such postural changes.
==== APCI MS ==== The source for APCI is similar to ESI except that ions are formed by the interaction of the heated analyte solvent with a corona discharge needle set at a high electrical potential. Primary ions are formed immediately surrounding the needle, and these interact with the solvent to form secondary ions that ultimately ionize the sample. APCI is particularly useful for the analysis of nonpolar lipids such as triacylglycerols, sterols, and fatty acid esters.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Cardarine is a common name for GW501516, a synthetic PPARδ agonist. It is not a steroid or a selective androgen receptor modulator. It was developed and studied as a research compound for metabolic pathways.
It binds to and activates PPARδ, a nuclear receptor that regulates genes related to fatty acid oxidation and energy use. This activation alters transcription in tissues such as skeletal muscle and liver. The full range of downstream effects in humans is not fully established.
No, cardarine is not known to occur naturally in plants, animals, or humans. It is a synthetic molecule produced for laboratory research. Products labeled as cardarine should therefore be treated as manufactured chemicals with variable purity.
Cardarine is commonly known as GW501516 or GW-1516. These names refer to the same synthetic compound. It is not a brand-name approved medicine.