This is a working overview of research chemical, written for readers who want more than a one-paragraph summary but less than a textbook.
Reviewed 2026-05-02. Anything still debated is marked as such rather than presented as settled.
Cardarine is a common name for GW501516, an investigational compound developed in the 1990s for metabolic conditions. It acts as an agonist at peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor delta, a nuclear receptor involved in lipid and energy metabolism. The compound is frequently mislabeled as a selective androgen receptor modulator, or SARM, but its molecular target is different. GW501516 reached early clinical testing before development was discontinued. It has no approved therapeutic use in any country. The name cardarine is not a formal international nonproprietary name.
Regulatory treatment varies, but cardarine is not approved as a medicine. Sports authorities list GW501516 as a prohibited substance, and it is banned at all times under the World Anti-Doping Agency code. Many countries restrict sales for human consumption, while online vendors market it as a research chemical. Such products may lack purity data, and their actual contents can differ from the label. Purchasing or possessing cardarine may carry legal consequences depending on jurisdiction. The compound is not a dietary supplement ingredient in regulated markets.
At the molecular level, GW501516 binds and activates PPARδ, a nuclear receptor that regulates transcription. Activation shifts expression of genes involved in fatty acid oxidation, energy expenditure, and lipid transport in skeletal muscle and liver. Animal studies report increased endurance and altered lipid profiles after exposure. Human data are limited to small trials and do not establish long-term safety or efficacy. PPARδ also has roles in cell proliferation, so the relationship between activation and cancer risk remains an open question.
Published literature on cardarine includes in vitro assays, rodent experiments, and a small number of human studies. Reports describe effects on exercise capacity and lipid metabolism in animals, while human evidence is sparse. Many online descriptions present the compound as a proven endurance aid, a claim not supported by regulatory approval or large clinical trials. Analytical studies focus on identifying the parent compound and its metabolites in biological samples. Important uncertainties include species differences, dose-response relationships, and the relevance of rodent tumor findings to humans.
Cardarine is the common name for GW501516, a synthetic compound studied as a peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor delta agonist. Researchers developed it to explore treatments for lipid disorders and metabolic conditions. It is not an approved medicine in any country. Early clinical work examined changes in HDL cholesterol and triglycerides, but development was discontinued after animal studies raised concerns about cancer. The compound remains available as a research chemical and appears in discussions of performance enhancement.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Common synonyms | GW501516; GW-1516; endurobol | GW501516 is the research code |
| Drug class | PPARδ agonist | Not a selective androgen receptor modulator |
| Molecular formula | C21H18F3NO3S2 | Established chemical formula |
| Molar mass | 453.5 g/mol | Calculated from the formula |
| Regulatory status | Prohibited in sport; not approved as medicine | Status varies by country |
In June 1945, the squadron initially flew missions with the 310th Fighter Squadron, often twice a day, using borrowed U.S. aircraft. It received 25 new P-47D-30-RA aircraft in July, marked with the insignia of both the USAAF and Mexican Air Force. The squadron flew more than 90 combat missions, totaling more than 1,900 hours of flight time. It participated in the Allied effort to bomb Luzon and Formosa to push the Japanese out of those islands. It relentlessly attacked the Japanese forces concentrated mainly in Luzon and flew 53 combat missions as part of the U.S. Air Force warfare organization, was specified in the support of the 25th Infantry Division, the Philippine Army, as well as numerous Filipino guerrillas, to open up into the Cagayan valley where the squadron devastated the Japanese defenses on the ground with its bombs. Close support missions consisted mainly of attacking resistance points, apart from these they launched attacks on bases, fortifications, supply routes and machine gun pits. During its fighting in the Philippines, five squadron pilots died (one was shot down, one crashed, and three ran out of fuel and died at sea); and three others died in accidents during training. The pilot Héctor Espinoza Galván was flying together with an American pilot but he ran out of fuel and fell into the ocean; His body was never found. Captain Pablo Ribaz Martínez and Second Lieutenant Guillermo García Ramos were surrounded by a storm, Ribaz Martínez dying while García Ramos survived after being rescued.
=== Sex pheromone === The sex pheromone of the American cockroach is the sequiterpene (1Z,5E)-1,10(14)-diepoxy-4(15),5-germacradien-9-one, which has been given the trivial name periplanone-B. This pheromone was isolated from the feces of virgin female cockroaches. Previously, 2,2-dimethyl-3-isopropylidenecyclopropyl propionate had been thought to be the structure of this pheromone, but on synthesis was shown to be inactive. The structure determination of this pheromone was an eventful chapter in the history of pheromone chemistry.
Epimysium (plural epimysia) (Greek epi- for on, upon, or above + Greek mys for muscle) is the fibrous tissue envelope that surrounds skeletal muscle. It is a layer of dense irregular connective tissue which ensheaths the entire muscle and protects muscles from friction against other muscles and bones. It also allows a muscle to contract and move powerfully while maintaining its structural integrity. It is continuous with fascia and other connective tissue wrappings of muscle including the endomysium and perimysium. It is also continuous with tendons, where it becomes thicker and collagenous. While the epimysium is irregular on muscles, it is regular on tendons.
=== Sa–Sc === Margarita Salas (1938–2019). Spanish biochemist at the Spanish National Research Council. Known for work on DNA replication. First woman elected to the Royal Spanish Academy. Wolfram Saenger (1939–2026). German biochemist and protein crystallographer at the Free University of Berlin, known for work on membrane proteins and protein-nucleic acid complexes. Member Natl. Acad. Sci. USA Frederick Sanger FRS (1918–2013). British biochemist at Cambridge University, known for advances in sequencing proteins and nucleic acids. Nobel prizes in Chemistry (1958, 1980). Foreign Associate Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. Albert Schatz (1920–2005). American microbiologist and science educator at Temple University, the discoverer of the antibiotic streptomycin. Paul Schimmel (b. 1940). American biochemist at the Scripps Research Institute, who developed methods of nucleic acid sequencing and coauthored (with Charles Cantor) the very influential three-volume book Biophysical Chemistry. Member Natl. Acad. Sci. USA Rudolph Schoenheimer (1898–1941). German-American biochemist at Columbia, pioneer of radioactive tagging of molecules. Stefan Schuster (b. 1961). German biophysicist at the University of Jena, pioneer in metabolic control analysis and metabolic pathway analysis. Rose Scott-Moncrieff (1903–1991). British biochemical geneticist at the University of Cambridge.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
=== Drinking water and products === In April 2024 EPA issued a final drinking water rule for PFOA, PFOS, GenX, PFBS, PFNA, and PFHxS. Public water systems must remove these six PFAS to near-zero levels by 2027. Grant funding is available from EPA to assist utilities in water testing and development of treatment systems. The State of New Jersey published drinking water standards for PFOA and PFOS in 2020. A standard for PFNA was published in 2018. This was the first state to publish PFAS standards in the absence of federal regulations. See U.S. state government actions. In 2018 the State of New York adopted drinking water standards of 10 ppt for PFOA and 10 ppt for PFOS, the most stringent such standards in the United States. The standards apply to public water systems and took effect in 2019 after a public comment period. Using information gained through a Freedom of Information Act request, in May 2018 it was learned that January 2018 emails between the EPA, the Office of Management and Budget, the Department of Defense, and the Department of Health and Human Services showed an effort to suppress the release of a draft report on the toxicology of PFOS and PFOA done by the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. The report found that these chemicals endanger human health at a far lower level than EPA has previously called safe. After media accounts of the effort surfaced, the regional EPA administrator for Colorado denied that EPA had anything to do with suppressing the report. The report was released on June 21, 2018.
== Chemistry == Aspartame is a methyl ester of the dipeptide of the natural amino acids L-aspartic acid and L-phenylalanine. Under strongly acidic or alkaline conditions, aspartame may generate methanol by hydrolysis. Under more severe conditions, the peptide bonds are also hydrolyzed, resulting in free amino acids.
Australia, Hong Kong, Israel, Macau and South Korea do not stamp passports upon entry nor exit. These countries or regions issue landing slips instead, except for Australia, which does not issue any physical evidence of entry. Visas may also take the form of passport stamps. Immigration authorities usually use different stamp styles for entries and exits to make it easier to track people's movements. Ink colour might be used to designate the mode of transportation (air, land, or sea), as in Hong Kong before 1997, while border styles did the same in Macau. Other variations include changing the stamp size to indicate the length of stay, as in Singapore. In many cases, passengers on cruise ships do not receive passport stamps because the entire vessel has been cleared into port. It is often possible to get a souvenir stamp, although this requires finding the immigration office by the dock. In many cases, officials are used to such requests and will cooperate. Also, as noted below, some of the smallest European countries will give a stamp on request, either at their border or tourist office charging, at most, a nominal fee.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Two asparagine synthetases are found in bacteria. Both are referred to as the AsnC protein. They are coded for by the genes AsnA and AsnB. AsnC is autogenously regulated, which is where the product of a structural gene regulates the expression of the operon in which the genes reside. The stimulating effect of AsnC on AsnA transcription is downregulated by asparagine. However, the autoregulation of AsnC is not affected by asparagine.
=== Stretch ratio === The stretch ratio or extension ratio (symbol λ) is an alternative measure related to the extensional or normal strain of an axially loaded differential line element. It is defined as the ratio between the final length l and the initial length L of the material line.
Identified weaknesses were comparatively higher infant mortality rate, the prevalence of chronic conditions, long wait times, poor availability of after-hours care, and a lack of prescription drugs and dental coverage. An increasing problem in Canada's health system is a lack of healthcare professionals and hospital capacity.
=== Medicine === Zinc pyrithione can be used to treat dandruff and seborrhoeic dermatitis. It also has antibacterial properties and is effective against many pathogens from the Streptococcus and Staphylococcus genera. Its other medical applications include treatments of psoriasis, eczema, ringworm, athletes foot, dry skin, atopic dermatitis, tinea versicolor, and vitiligo.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
No. Cardarine is GW501516, a PPARδ agonist, while SARMs act on androgen receptors. The two classes are often grouped in informal discussions despite different mechanisms.
No. It has no approved medical indication in any country. Regulatory agencies have not cleared it for treatment or prevention of any condition.
Early clinical work stopped after rodent carcinogenicity findings. Those animal results raised concerns about long-term human risk, although direct human evidence is lacking. The human relevance of the tumors remains an open scientific question.
Cardarine is a common name for the investigational compound GW501516. It acts as a PPARδ agonist and is not approved for human use. It is prohibited in sport.